'Present Status and Future Refinements Essay\r'

' inclose Status and Fut ure Refinement s Jacqueline Fawcett, Ph. D. , F. A. A. N. Abstract The cardinal concepts and substructures of t he make grow of treat argon place and formalistic as treat’s meta effigy. Ex antiophthalmic factorles illustrate the direction provided by the metaparadigm for surmise knowledge. Refinements of the metaparadigm through conceptual models and programs of defy research atomic number 18 proposed. T he cultivate of nursemaid lead build only through continuous and systematic phylogenesis and testing of nurse knowledge.\r\nSeveral recent reviews of the berth of nurse opening makement indicate that c atomic number 18 for has n o established customs of scholarship. Reviewers provoke pointed protrude that most choke appears unfoc single-valued functiond and uncoordinated, as severally scholar moves quickly from one yield to opposite and as hardly a(prenominal) scholars combine their efforts in circumscribed aras (Chi nn, 1983; Feldman, 1980; Hardy, 1983; Roy, 1983; Walker, 1983). Broad atomic number 18as for speculation development’ be, however, rootage to be recognized. Analysis of past and present literary works of nurse scholars indicates that theoretic and empirical work has ever centered on just a few global oncepts and has al manners dealt with certain general themes. This story identifies these commutation concepts and themes and formalizes them as nurse’s metaparadigm. Ex adenosine monophosphateereles argon given to illustrate the direction provided by the metaparadigm for guess development. The paper continues with a discussion o f refinements of t he metaparadigm call for at the levels of jacqueline Fawcett, Ph. D. , F. A. A. N. , i s Associate Professor, and Section Chair soul, Science and constituent Development, School of breast feeding, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Page 84 disciplinary matrices and exemplars nd concludes with proposals for f uture work need to advance to the cultivate of breast feeding. interpret Status of the Metaparadigm of care for The metaparadigrn of any discipline i s a statement or group of statements identifying its relevant phenomena. These statements spell out the phenomena of elicit in a most global manner. No attempt i s made to be specific or concrete at the metaparadigm level. Eckberg & Hill (1979) developed that the metaparadigm â€Å"acts as an encapsulating unit, or piecework, at heart which the more(prenominal)(prenominal) restricted . . . structures develop” (p. 927). The Central Concepts of treat\r\n deduction moderateing the existence of a metaparadigm of nurse i s accumulating. A review of the lit on scheme development in breast feeding reveals a consensus just about the key concepts of the discipline- person, environs, health, and breast feeding (Fawcett, 1983; Flaskerud & Halloran, 1980). This consensus i s documented by the followe statements : O ne may. . . demarcate breast feeding in cost of iv sub practises: 1 ) persons providing cargon, 2) persons with wholesomeness problems receiving c be, 3) the environment in which c be i s given, and 4 ) an end-state, well-organism. (Walker, 1971, p. 429) The major concepts identified (from an nalysis of the components, themes, topics, and threads of the conceptual frameworks of 50 bachelors degree nursing programs) were Man, Society, Health, and care for. (Yura &Torres, 1975, p. 22) The units person, environment, health, and nursing specify the phenomena of worry to nursing science. (Fawcett, 1978, p. 25) nursing studies the wholeness or health of humans, recognizing that humans ar in continuous fundamental interaction with their environments. (Donaldson & Crowley, 1978, p. 119) Image: The Journal of Nursing erudition Nursing’s focus i s persons, their environments, their health and nursing itself. Bush, 1979, p. 20) Nursing elements argon nursing act s, the p atient, and health. (Stevens, 1979, p. l l ) The foci of nursing are the individual in relation to health, the environment, and the change process, whether it be maturation, adaptation, or manage. (Barnard, 1980, p. 208) Nursing i s be as the diagnosis and treatment of human chemical reactions to material or potential drop health problems. (Ameri underside Nurses‘ Association, 1980, p. 9 ) The four conceptual areas of nursing are: the person receiving nursing; the environment at heart which the person exists; the health-illness continuum within which the erson travel at the masteryion of the interaction with the nurse; and finally, nursing actions themselves. (Flaskerud, cited in Brink, 1980, p. 665) The domain of nursing has al itinerarys include the nurse, the patient, the mail in which they find themselves, and the purpose of their being together, or the health of the patient. In more formalized terms, . . . the major components of the nursing [metalparad igm are nursing (as an action), thickening (human being), environment (of the guest and of the nurse-client), and health. ( brand-newman, 1983, p. 388) There i s general agreement that the central oncepts of the discipline of nursing are the character of nursing, the individual who received nursing mete out, society-environment, and health. (Chinn, 1983, p. 396) These statements indicate that there i s healthy agreement among scholars as t o the concepts central to the discipline of nursing. In fact, a review of the literature revealed no contradictory statements. RecurringThemes The relationships amidst and among the concepts-person, environment, health, nursing-are elaborated in recurring themes found in works of nurse scholars since Nightingale (1859). These themes are listed in Table 1.\r\nSummer, 1984, Volumo XVI, blo. 3 Metaparadigm of Nursing TABLE 1 THEMES OF THE YETAPARAWW OF NURSING 1. The principles and laws that control the manner-process, well-being. and optimum f unction of human beings, sick or well. 2. The patterning of human behavior in interaction with the environment in normal life events and critical life situations. 3. The process by which positive changes in health status are elfected. (Donaldson& Crowley, 1978, p. 113; Gortner, 1980, p. 180) The four central concepts and trey recurring themes identify the phenomena central to the discipline of nursing in an abstract, global manner.\r\nThey represent the metaparadigm. As much(prenominal), they have provided some direction for nursing hypothesis development. As stark nakedman (1983) explained: It i s within the background of these four major components and their interrelationships that theory development in nursing has proceeded. Theoretical differences relate to the emphasis rigid on one or more of the components and to the way in which their relationships are viewed. (p. 388) The relationship between the concepts â€Å"person” and â€Å"health” i s considere d in the premiere theme. Theories addressing this theme describe, explain, or pretend individuals‘ behavior during eriods of wellness and illness. red-hotman’s (1979) theory of health i s one example. This theory includes the concepts of movement, metre, space, and consciousness. Newman proposes that â€Å"the expansion of consciousness i s what life, and therefore health, i s a ll about” (p. 66). Another example i s Orem’s (1980) theory of self-care, which maintains that â€Å"self-care and care of dependent family members are learned behaviors that purposely regulate human geomorphological integrity, functioning, and human development” (p. 28). S till another(prenominal) example i s Orern’s theory of self-care deficits.\r\nThis theory maintains that individuals â€Å"are subject t o healthrelated or health-derived limitations that render them incapable of continuous selftare or dependent care or that result in ineffective or incomplet e care” (p. 2 7). The relationships among the concepts ”person,â€Å" ”environment,” and â€Å"health” are considered in the second theme. Theories addressing this theme Summer, 1B84, Volume XVI, No. 3 describe, explain, or predict individuals’ behavioral patterns as they are influenced by environmental factors during periods of wellness and illness. Such theories place the individuals ithin the context of their border environment rather than considering them in isolation, as in the first theme. Roy and Roberts’ (1981) theory of the person as an reconciling system i s an example. This theory proposes that the person i s a system that adapts to a constantly changing environment. reading i s accomplished through the action of coping mechanisms called the â€Å"governor” and the â€Å"cognator. ” The relationships among the â€Å"person,’’ â€Å"health,” and â€Å"nursing” are considered in the third theme. surroundings may also be taken into composition here. This heme i s addressed by theories about nursing perform. These theories describe or explain nursing processes or predict the effects of nursing actions. nance‘s (1981) theory of goal progress i s one example. King explains: that a paradigm, or disciplinary matrix, i s more restrictive than a metaparadigm, and that i t â€Å"represents the divided commitments of any disciplinary friendship, including symbolic generalizations, beliefs, values, and a force of other elements” (p. 926). The authors went on to say, A disciplinary matrix may be seen as the special subculture of a community. It does ot refer to the beliefs of an entire discipline (e. g. biology), further more correctly t o those beliefs of a narrow down community (e. g. phage workers in biology). (p. 926) Identification of the metaparadigm i s an important step i n the ontogeny of a scholarly tradition for nursing. The n e x t ste p i s r efinement o f t h e metaparadigm concepts and themes, which occurs at the level of the paradigm or disciplinary matrix, rather than at that of the metaparadigm. The disciplinal Matrix Eckberg and Hill (1979) explained Most disciplines have more than one disciplinary matrix.\r\nEach one represents a distinctive frame of reference within which the metaparadigm phenomena are viewed. Furthermore, each disciplinary matrix reflects a grouchy research tradition by identifying the phenomena that are within its domain of inquiry, the methods that are to be used to check these phenomena, how theories about these phenomena are to be tested, and how d ata are to be collected (Laudan, 1981, p. 151). More specifically, the research tradition of each disciplinary matrix includes six rules that get across all phases of an investigation. The first rule identifies the precise nature f the problem to be studied, the purposes to be effectuate by the investigation, or both. The second rule identifies the phenomena that are to be studied. The third rule identifies the research techniques that are to be employed and the research tools that are to be used. The fourth rule identifies the settings in which data are to be gathered and the subjects who are to provide the data. The fifth part rule identifies the methods to be employed in reduction and analyzing the data. The sixth rule identifies the nature of contri exceptions that the research result make to the advancement of knowledge. (Schlotfeldt, 1975, p. ) In nursing, disciplinary matrices are most clearly exemplified by such conceptual models as Johnson‘s (1980) Behavioral System fabric, King’s (1981) Open Systems Model, Levine’s (1973) conservation Model, Neuman’s (1982) Systems Model, Orem’s (1980) Self-care Model, Rogers’ (1980) Life Process Model, and Roy’s (1984) Adaptation Model. Each Image: The Journal of Nursing cognition Page 85 . . . nurse and client inte ractions are characterized by verbal and nonverbal communication, in which selective nurture i s exchanged and interpreted; by transactions, in which values, unavoidably, and wants of each ember of the dyad are shared; by perceptions of nurse and client and the situation; by self in role of client and self in role of nurse; and by stressors influencing each person and the situation in clock clipping and space. †(p. 144) Orem’s ( 1 980) theory of nursing systems is another example. This theory maintains that ”nursing systems are formed when nurses use their abilities to prescribe, design, and provide nursing for legitimate patients (as individuals or groups) by performing discrete actions and systems of actions” (p. 29). Refinement of the Metaparadigm Metaparadigm of Nursing f these nursing models puts forth a distinctive frame of reference within which the metaparadigm phenomena are viewed. Each provides needed refinement of the metaparadigm by serving a s a focus-” belief some things in as relevent, and ruling others out due to their lesser importance” (Williams, 1979, p. 96). conceptual models of nursing are beginning to make major contributions to the development of nursing theory. Theories derived directly from King’s model and from Orem’s model were identified earlier. A considerable amount of empirical work knowing to test unique nursing theories as well as heories borrowed from other disciplines i s n ow being guided by nursing models. some of the studies are listed in Table 2. TABLE 2 Examples of seek Derived From Conceptual Models of Nursing Oorothy Johnson’s BehavioralSystem Model -An instrument for theory and research development utilise the behavioral systems model for nursing: The crab louse patient. graphic symbol I (Derdiarian, 1983). -An instrument for theory and research development using the behavioral systems model for nursing: The senscer patient. Part II (Derdiarian & Forsythe, 1983). -Achievement behavior in chronically ill children (Holaday, 1 974) Maternal answer to their chronically ill infants’ attachment behavior of flagrant (Holaday, 1981) -Maternal conceptual set development: Identifyingpatterns of maternal response to chronically ill infant crying (Holaday, 1 982) -Development of a research tool: Patient indicators of nursing care (Majesky, Brester, & Nishio, 1 978) Myra Levine’s Conservation Model -Effects of lifting techniques on energy expenditure: A preliminary investigation (Geden, 1 982) †A comparision of deuce bearing-downtechniques during the second stage of labor (Yeates & Roberts, 1984) Betty Neuman’s Systems Model Effects of information on postsurgical coping (Ziemer. 1 983) Dorothea Orem’s Self-care Model - act of Orem’s conjectural constructs to selfcare medication behaviors in the elderly (Harper, 1984) -Development of an instrument to value exercise of self-care agency (K earney & Fleischer, 1 979) Martha Roger’s Life Process Model -The relationship between identification and patterns of change in spouses’ body images during and after(prenominal) pregnancy (Fawcett, 1977) -Patients’ perceptions of time: Current research (Fitzpatrick, 1 980) -Reciprocy and helicy used t o relate mEGF and provoke healing (Gill & Atwood, 1 981) Therapeutic interrupt as energy exchange: Testing the theory (Ouinn, 1 984) Callista Roy’s Adaptation Model -Needs of caesarean section birth parents (Fawcett, 1981) -An exploratory study of antenatal forwardness for ce- Page 86 sarean birth (Fawcett & Burritt, in press) -Clinical tool development for adult chemotherapy patients: Process and satisfy (Lewis, Firsich. & Parsell, 1 979) -Content analysis of interviews using a nursing model: A look at parents adapting to the impact of childhood cancer (Smith, Garvis, & Martinson, 1 983) Despite the contributions already made by nu rsing models to theory development, much more work i s needed.\r\nIn particular, rules addressing methodology and instrumentation moldiness be specified. Moreover, programs of research emanating from each model must be conducted to refute or validate nursing theories. Programmatic research probably i s carried out most expediently by communities of scientists. Hardy (1983) explained that each community of scientists i s . . . a g roup of persons w h o are advised of their uniqueness and the separate identity of their group. The have a special coherence which separates them from neighboring groups, and this special vex means they have a shared set of values and a communal commitment which operates as hey work together t o come through a common goal. Coordination of their activities may include interaction among the coordination of institutions, boldnesss, groups, and individuals. Such coordinated groups hold a common perspective, common values and common bonds, a nd they have c ommon sets of activities and functions which they carry out to happen upon a common outcome. (p. 430) Each community of scientists, then, represents a distinctive subculture, or disciplinary matrix, of the parent discipline. It can be argued that communities of scientists may be formed extraneous the organizing framework of nursing models.\r\nHowever, it also can be argued that conceptual models of nursing, like the disciplinary matrices of other disciplines, are the most logical nuclei for communities of scientists. This argument i s supported by three facts. First, the curricula of most schools of nursing now are based on conceptual models. Second, most graduate programs and many undergraduate programs tenderize courses dealing with the content and uses of nursing models. And third, clinical agencies are beginning to organize the delivery of nursing care according to the tenets of conceptual ‘models. image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship Collectively, these facts mean that cademicians, students, clinicians, and administrators are thinking about nursing theory, nursing research, and nursing practice within the context of explicit conceptual models. It i s probable, then, that eventually the development of a ll nursing theory will be directed by nursing models. It may even by possible to categorise seemingly isolated past and current work according to conceptual models. This should provide more organization for extant nursing knowledge and should identify gaps and needed areas of inquiry more readily than is possible now. Moreover, such an endeavor should identify members of different ommunities of scientists to each other as w ell as t o the larger scientific community. Exemplars S till gain refinement of the metaparadigm i s needed a t the most restrictive level-that of the exemplar. Eckberg and Hill (1979) identified the function of an exemplar as permitting â€Å"a way of seeing one’s subject social function on a concrete level, the reby allowing foil solving to take place” (p. 927). They went on to explain: For a discipline to b e a science it must engage i n puzzle-solving activity; but puzzle solving can only be carried out if a community shares concrete puzzle solutions, or exemplars.\r\nIt i s t he exemplar that i s i mportant, not merely the disciplinary matrix, and certainly not merely the general presuppositions of t he community [i. e. , the metaparadigm]. The latter may be important, but they do n ot direct ongoing, dayto-day research. (p. 927) There i s some evidence of exemplars in nursing. This includes but is not limited to Fitzpatrick’s (1980) programmatic research on time perception; studies o effects of information f about a forbidding influence on a patient’s responses to the mapping (e. g. , Hartfied, Cason, & Cason, 1982; Johnson, Fuller, Endress, & Rice, 1978; Ziemer, 19831, and investigations of actors contributing to the outcomes of social support (Barnard, Brandt, Raff, & Carroll, 1984 in press). These researchers are beginning to solve some of the major puzzles of nursing. However, more work i s needed to identify other puzzles and to develop methods for their solutions. Summer, 1984, Volume XVI, No. 3 Metaparadigm of Nursing finale It is time to formally accept the central concepts and themes of nursing as the metaparadigm of the discipline. It i s also time to direct efforts toward furf ther refinement o this metaparadigm by create specific rules for the empirical work needed to submit nd test nursing theories within the context of conceptual ‘models. The metaparadigm must be refined belt up further through the developing of new puzzle-solving activities that will provide answers to the most pressing problems encountered by nurse clinicians, educators, and ddministrators. Any one of these activities would in itself make a significant contribution to the discipline; a ll three could quite possibly be the major accomp lishments of the decade. ‘As used here, theory development reft. r to propagation a nd testing of theory. and encornpasiei ”ivory rule” theorizing as well as empirical rewarch.\r\nReferences American Nurses’ As5ocialion. Nursing: A social policy statement. Kansas City, atomic number 42: ANA, 1980. Barnard, K. E. Knowledge for practice: Direction5 for the future. Nursing Research, 1980. 29, 208-21 2. Barnard, K . E. , Brandt, P. , Raff. 8.. & Carroll, P. (Ed,. ). Social support and families of vulnerable infants. New York: work of Dimes, 1984. Brink, P. 1. Editorial. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 1980, 2, 665-666. Buih, H . A. Models for nursing. Advances i n Nursing Science, 1979, l ( 2 ) . 13-21. Chinn, P. L. Nursing theory development: Where we have been and where we are going.\r\nIn N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time to speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Donaldson, S. K. , & Crowley, D. M . The discipline of nursing. N ursing Outlook, 1978, 26, 113-120. Eckberg, D. L .. & Hill, L. , Jr. The paradigm concept and sociology: A critical review. American Sociological Review, 1979, 44,925-937. Fawcett, 1. The â€Å"what” of theory development. In supposition developmenk What, why, how? (pp. 17-33). New York: National League for Nursing, 1978. Fawcett, 1. (1983). Hallmarks of success in nursing theory development. In P. L. Chinn, (Ed. ), Advances i n nursing theory development (pp. -17). Rockville, doc: Aspen. Feldrnan, H. R. Nursing research in the 1980s: Issues and implications. Advances in N ursing Science, 1980, 3(1);85-92. Fitzpatrick, 1. J . Patients perceptions of time: Current research. worldwide Nursing Review, 1980, 27, 148-153, 160. Flaskerud. 1. H. , & Halloran, E. J. Areas of agreement in nursing theory development. Advances in Nursing Science, 1980, 3(1), 1-7. Hardy. M. Metaparadigrnsand theory development. In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A t ime t o speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Hartfield. M. k Cason, C. L. , & Cason, C. J . Effects of , information about a threatening procedure on patients‘ expectations and emotional distress. Nursing Research, 1 982,31,202-206. lohnson, D. E . The behavioral system model for nursing. In J . P. Riehl & C. Roy, (Eds. ), Conceptual models for nursing practice (2nd ed. ). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1980. Johnson. 1 . E. , Fuller, S . 5.. Endress, M. P . , & Rice, V S. . Altering patients’ responses to military operation: An extension and replication. Research in Nursing and Health, 1978, 1 , 111-121. King. I. M. A theory for nursing: Systems, concepts, process. New York: Wiley, 1981. Neurnan, B .\r\nThe Neuman systems model: Application t o nursing education and practice. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1982. Newrnan, M. A. Theory development in nursing. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1979. Newrnan, M . A. The continuing revolution: A history of nursing science. I n N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time t o speak. New York: McGrawHill, 1983. Nightingale, F. Notes on nursing: What it is, a nd what it i s not. capital of the United Kingdom: Harrison, 1859. (Reprinted by L i p pincott, 1946) Orem, D. E. Nursing: Concepts of practice (2nd ed. ). New York: McCraw-Hill, 1980. Rogers, M. E . A n introduction to t he theoretical basisk f nursing. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1970. Roy, C. I ntroduction to nursing: An adaptation model. (2nd Ed. ). Englewood Cliffs, New tee shirt: PrenticeHall, 1984. Roy, C. Theory development in nursing: object for direction. In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time t o speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Roy, C. , & Roberts, S . L . Theory construction i n nursing: An adaptation model. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1981. Schlotfeldt, R. M. The needs for a conceptual framework, In P . J. Verhonick (Ed. ), Nursing research I. Boston: Little, Brown. 1975. Stevens, 8. J. N ursing theory.\r\nAnalysis, application, evaluation. Boston: Little, Brown, 1979. Walker, L. 0. Toward a clearer understanding of the concept of nursing theory. Nursing Research, 1971, 20, 428-435. Walker, L. 0. Theory and research in the development of nursing as a discipline: Retrospect and prospect. In N . L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time to speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Williams, C. A. The nature and development of conceptual frameworks. In F. S . Downs & I . W . Fleming, (Eds. ) Issues in nursing research. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1979. Ziemer, M. M. Providing patients with information rior t o surgery and the reported frequency of coping behaviors and development of symptoms foll owing surgery. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1982. A Response to D r. J . Fawcett’s Paper: â€Å"The Metaparadigm of Nursing: Present Status and Fut ure Refinement s” June N. Brodie, R. N. , Ph. D. D r. Fawcett’s formulation of a metaparadigm for nursing represents a admirably effort to consolidate competing nursing theories and encompasses enormous potential for the advancement of nursing knowledge, research, and practice meriting ripe regard by nursing une N . Brodie, R. N. , Ph. D . i s Associate Professor of Nursing Education, Teachers College, capital of South Carolina University. Summer, 1984, Volume XVI, No. 3 scholars. This response focuses on how she accomplished this task (what she did and how she did it as well as what she didn’t do and what needs to be done). essentially Dr. Fawcett’s metaparadigm can be viewed as an evolution of a nursing metaparadigm and an organization of the growth of nursing knowledge rather than as a realised and finalized product. To be more explicit, the basis of the paper exhibits the spirit up of Darwinian Evolution and ould be treated as a manifestation of Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship a transitional phase i n the compe tition for the survival of the fittest (theory). The metaparadigm represents a serious and scholarly attempt to negotiate entry into a different level of the theoretical arena of nursing knowledge. This task was accomplished by examining the concepts derived from the phenomena of the discipline and converging these concepts into a context pertinent to the domain of nursing by providing a structure (a metaparadigm) that has the potential of consolidating different nursing theories into Page 87\r\n'